Scientific Investigations

A. Forensic Analysis

The Shroud provides detailed forensic evidence related to the man's suffering:

  • Flagellation:

    • Approximately 120 marks from a Roman flagrum (a whip with multiple thongs) are visible.

    • The wounds indicate that two executioners of different heights and strengths were involved.

    • The victim's arms were likely raised during the scourging.

  • Crown of Thorns:

    • The Shroud reveals numerous puncture wounds on the head, concentrated in the posterior region, indicating a cap-like crown.

    • The wounds would have caused significant pain.

  • Crucifixion:

    • The position of the body and the wounds are consistent with Roman crucifixion practices.

    • The right arm was likely positioned slightly higher than the left.

    • The nails were likely driven through the wrists, causing the thumbs to retract.

  • Facial Wounds:

    • The face shows signs of trauma, including a swollen right cheekbone and injuries to the nose and lips.

    • The beard and moustache appear to have been pulled or torn.

    • The eyelids are sunken, indicating dehydration.

  • Bloodstains:

    • The blood on the Shroud is human blood of type AB.

    • The bright red colour is consistent with a high level of bilirubin, a pigment that can be elevated in cases of severe trauma.

    • There is a unique epsilon-shaped blood flow on the forehead, consistent with blood flowing over the brow ridges.

  • Absence of Putrefaction: The absence of decomposition fluids suggests the body was removed from the shroud relatively quickly, before significant decay could occur (within 30-40 hours).

B. Pollen and Botanical Evidence

  • Pollen Grains: Microscopic pollen grains found on the Shroud are specific to the region of Palestine, particularly Jerusalem and Hebron.

  • Flower Images: Images of flowers, visible through image processing, are also specific to the region and bloom between March and April. The state of one flower suggests it was placed on the Shroud between 3 and 4 PM, shortly after the estimated time of Jesus' death.

  • Calcite: Traces of a specific type of calcite found on the Shroud match the calcite found in tombs near Jerusalem.

C. Fabric Analysis

  • Weave: The Shroud is made of linen woven in a 3:1 herringbone twill, a weave that was known in the ancient world.

  • Material: The cloth is pure linen, with only trace amounts of cotton. Jewish law at the time prohibited mixing linen and wool.

  • Dimensions: The Shroud measures 4.44 meters long and 1.13 meters wide, corresponding to approximately eight and two Jewish cubits, respectively.

D. Carbon-14 Dating

  • 1988 Results: In 1988, carbon-14 dating tests conducted by three separate laboratories dated the Shroud to the Middle Ages (1260-1390 AD).

  • Controversies: These results have been challenged due to:

    • Potential contamination of the samples.

    • The presence of a medieval repair patch on the sample area.

    • Questions about the accuracy of the dating method when applied to linen.

  • 2022 X-Ray Dating: A 2022 study using wide-angle X-ray diffraction (WAXD) dated the Shroud to the 1st century AD.